Author and Title

The name “Deuteronomy” derives from the Greek for “second law,” an early mistranslation of “copy of this law” in 17:18. In fact, Deuteronomy emphasizes that its laws are not a new law but rather the preaching of the original law given to Israel at Sinai.

Deuteronomy 31:9 records that Moses wrote down “this law,” most likely referring to chapters 1–30. Certainly the bulk of these chapters is the speech of Moses to Israel in the plains of Moab at the end of the 40-year wilderness period and immediately preceding the conquest under Joshua. Later OT and NT statements also assume Mosaic authorship (cf. Josh. 23:6; 1 Kings 2:3; Mal. 4:4; Matt. 19:7–8; Rom. 10:19).

Date

There are two main issues related to the dating of this book. One is the date of the conquest, and hence of Moses’ life. The dating of the conquest is disputed, with the two major positions placing it in the late fifteenth century b.c. (about 1406) or in the thirteenth century (about 1220; for further discussion, see Introduction to the Historical Books).

The second issue is the dating of the book itself. If Moses is the author, then the two issues are more or less the same. However, another widely held view is that the book should be dated long after Moses. Some would date the book to the time of King Josiah in the latter part of the seventh century b.c. (2 Kings 22:8–13). Certainly Josiah’s reforms were advanced by the finding of a book, probably Deuteronomy, in the temple. However, this need not indicate that the book was written then. Others argue that while there may be material in Deuteronomy from the time of Josiah, it was subsequently edited in the exilic period of the sixth century b.c.

The view taken in these notes is that the book substantially dates from Moses himself, in agreement with its internal testimony (cf. Deut. 31:9, 24). The parallels with ancient treaties, especially the Hittite treaties from the second millennium, also point to an early date, thus around the fifteenth or thirteenth century b.c.

Purpose, Occasion, and Background

Deuteronomy is largely a sermon, or set of sermons, preached by Moses to all of Israel shortly before his death and not long before the conquest of the land under the leadership of Joshua. It is a motivational sermon, urging Israel’s faithful obedience to the covenant laws of Sinai given 40 years previously.

The circumstance of the sermon carries added significance because of Israel’s failure, a generation earlier, to conquer the land starting at Kadesh-barnea on the southern border of Canaan (see 1:19–46). Now that they are back at the eastern border of the Promised Land, Deuteronomy seeks to ensure that such failure does not recur. The rhetorical style of the sermon motivates obedience by constantly reassuring them of God’s faithfulness and his power to keep his promise of land. This faithfulness of God remains despite Israel’s persistent sin, detailed at length (e.g., 1:19–46; 9:1–29). Thus Deuteronomy demonstrates that God’s faithfulness results in mercy to his sinful people, for the sake of his promises to Abraham.

The theology of Deuteronomy is focused on convincing Israel to trust and obey, and to conquer the land. The uniqueness and incomparability of God is clearly argued (e.g., ch. 4). His power over other nations and armies is evident (e.g., 2:1–23). His grace and faithfulness are also stressed, with frequent reminders that the land is sworn by him on oath and is undeserved (9:4–6) and full of good things (e.g., 6:10–12).

The book’s emphasis on the continuation of the covenant made at Sinai with the previous generation underscores the abiding significance of God’s law for his people (e.g., see 5:1–3). The large central section of Deuteronomy (12:1–26:19) recites the law, consistently urging Israel to keep it. The law is wide-ranging, incorporating all areas of life—economics, family and sexual relationships, religious observance, leadership, justice, guidance, food, property, and warfare. To some extent, the detail of the laws fleshes out the great command of 6:5, that Israel is to love the Lord with all its heart, soul, and strength. Chapters 12–16 show what such total love of God will look like and, in many respects, provide examples of what the Ten Commandments (ch. 5) mean in practice.

Key Themes

1. The uniqueness of God (4:1–40).

2. The election of Israel (4:5–9; 7:6; 10:14–15; 14:1–2, 21).

3. The goodness of the land that God has promised to give Israel (1:25; 6:10–11; 8:7–13; 11:8–15).

4. The faithfulness of God, despite Israel’s sin, to keep his promise of land made originally to Abraham (1:8, 19–46; 7:1–26; 8:1–20; 9:1–10:11).

5. The power of God to defeat the enemies in the land (2:1–3:11; 4:1–40; 7:1–26).

6. Exhortations to Israel to love, serve, fear, and obey God (6:5; 10:12–13; 13:4).

7. Warnings against idolatry and instruction for proper worship of God (4:9–31; 5:6–10; 7:1–5; 8:19–20; 12:1–32; 13:1–18).

8. The comprehensiveness of the laws of God affecting all of life in the land (12:1–27:26).

9. The imminent death of Moses (1:37; 3:26; 4:21; 32:51; 34:1–12).

History of Salvation Summary

Deuteronomy is an important book for understanding not only OT theology but also the theological unity of both Testaments. Deuteronomy recognizes the need for God to act within the heart if Israel is to achieve faithful obedience to God’s covenant. The ideal life in the land is for each member of the people, and the body as a whole, to display fervent love to God as their proper response to God’s love for them; this is the means by which the rest of the world is to learn of the true God (4:5–8)—the very reason for which Israel exists. Israel’s record of failure recounted in Deuteronomy exposes that need. In its projection in 4:29–31 and 30:1–20, Deuteronomy looks forward to the day when God will change Israel’s heart. This longing recurs in the OT (e.g., Jer. 31:31–34; Ezek. 36:24–28). It is finally met through the work of Jesus’ death and the giving of his Spirit (e.g., Rom. 2:25–29; Col. 2:11–14). (For an explanation of the “History of Salvation,” see the Overview of the Bible. See also History of Salvation in the Old Testament: Preparing the Way for Christ.)

(from the ESV study bible)

Theme

The theme of Numbers is the gradual fulfillment of the promises to Abraham that his descendants would be the people of God and occupy the land of Canaan. The book shows the reality of God’s presence with Israel in the cloud of fire over the tabernacle, but the repeated displays of unbelief by Israel delay the entry into Canaan and cost many lives. Nevertheless, by the end of the book, Israel is poised to enter the land.

Purpose, Occasion, and Background

Jews refer to the first five books of the Bible as “the Law” (Torah), and Christians call them the “Pentateuch” or “The Five Books of Moses.” Numbers is the fourth volume in this series and relates Israel’s journey from Mount Sinai to the borders of the Promised Land, summarizing some 40 years of the nation’s history. The book begins with Israel making final preparations to leave Sinai. It then records their triumphal setting out, before relating a series of disasters in which the people grumbled about the difficulty of the journey and the impossibility of conquering Canaan. This response leads to God delaying the entry to Canaan by 40 years. The closing chapters of the book tell how the people at last set out again and reached the banks of the Jordan, poised to cross into the land promised to their forefathers.

Numbers thus relates a most important stage in the early history of Israel. Genesis begins with the creation of the world, but soon focuses on the life of the patriarchs and ends with their move to Egypt. Exodus tells how they left Egypt and came to Sinai to receive the law. Leviticus contains some of these laws, and Numbers still more. Numbers also summarizes the 40 years in the wilderness, and Deuteronomy (the sequel to Numbers) has Moses expounding the laws and urging the people to obey them. Deuteronomy ends with Moses’ death.

Another way of looking at the Pentateuch is as a biography of Moses (see Introduction to the Pentateuch). Numbers makes a vital contribution to this biography. First, it underlines Moses’ unique role as mediator between God and Israel. As elsewhere in the Pentateuch, it is constantly reiterated that “the Lord spoke to Moses.” And when this is challenged by his brother and sister, God himself intervenes: “With him [i.e., Moses] I speak mouth to mouth, clearly, and not in riddles, and he beholds the form of the Lord” (12:8). Second, it makes an astounding claim about Moses’ character: “Now the man Moses was very meek, more than all the people who were on the face of the earth” (12:3; see note on 12:3–4). Third, it explains why Moses never entered Canaan himself: his failure to follow God’s instruction precisely is tersely told (20:10–13), as is the subsequent death of his brother Aaron for supporting Moses’ action (20:22–29). The book closes with the reader left in suspense about when and how Moses himself will die.

Numbers is to be classed as a historical work, not only because various details in it are corroborated by archaeological discoveries but also because it deliberately sets out to record what happened on the journey from Mount Sinai to the Jordan River. It does this to instruct future generations of readers with the lessons to be learned from the wilderness experience. It is saying in effect to the reader, “Your forefathers made many mistakes on their journey to Canaan; make sure you do not repeat them.”

However, Numbers does not paint an entirely gloomy picture: the book encourages its readers as well as warns them. By the end of the book the people of Israel have conquered formidable opponents in the Transjordan (the land east of the Jordan River), taken possession of their territory, and are poised to cross the Jordan and enter the Promised Land. In this way the book shows how the promises to the patriarchs are being fulfilled (see Key Themes).

Key Themes

The theme of the Pentateuch is the gradual fulfillment of the promises to the patriarchs, and Numbers makes a notable contribution to the exposition of that theme. There are four elements to the patriarchal promise set out first in Genesis 12:1–3: (1) land, (2) many descendants, (3) covenant relationship with God, and (4) blessing to the nations. These four aspects of the promise all play a role in Numbers.

1. The land. The land of Canaan is the goal of the book of Numbers. It is broached in the first chapter, where a census is taken of all the men who are able to go to war. Israel is being prepared to fight for the land. Chapter 10 sees them setting out from Sinai, led by the fire of God’s presence. Chapter 13 relates their arrival at the southern border of the land and the mission of the spies. The spies’ gloomy report causes Israel to lose heart about the land, and God sentences them to wander for 40 years in the wilderness. But the second half of the book shows the people again on the move toward the land, overcoming opposition and reaching the eastern border of Canaan, marked by the Jordan River (ch. 34). The last word from God in the book is both a command and a promise: each of the tribes of the people of Israel shall hold on to its own inheritance (36:9).

2. Descendants. Abraham had been promised that his descendants would be as many as the stars of heaven (Gen. 15:5). Jacob’s family consisted of just 70 persons when he entered Egypt (Gen. 46:27). Now they have increased immensely. The first census showed that the fighting men numbered 603,550. That did not include women and children. Surveying their camp from a hilltop, Balaam declared, “Who can count the dust of Jacob or number the fourth part of Israel?” (Num. 23:10). Balaam went on to predict that Israel would become a powerful kingdom in its own right: “a star shall come out of Jacob, and a scepter shall rise out of Israel” (24:17).

3. Covenant relationship with God. The essence of the covenant was, “You shall be my people, and I will be your God.” The Lord’s presence with Israel is constantly brought out in the book of Numbers. There are the dramatic manifestations of his presence in the cloud that guided them or that appeared at moments of crisis (e.g., 9:15–23; 14:10). Then the design of the tabernacle and the harsh measures to be taken against intruders all emphasized the reality of God’s holy presence (3:38). On the other hand, Israel was expected to trust God’s promises and obey his laws. Failure to do so resulted in death for the individual and sometimes for large groups (e.g., 15:32–36; 25:6–9). Even Moses forfeited his right to enter the land because of disobedience (20:10–13). But despite Israel’s persistent failure to keep to the law, God never forsakes them or goes back on his promises. They may have to wait an extra 40 years to enter the land, but eventually they do reach it. “The Lord is slow to anger and abounding in steadfast love” (14:18).

4. Blessing to the nations. This is the aspect of the promises that is least apparent in Numbers. To a greater or lesser degree, the nations that Israel encounters are all hostile: the Edomites refuse Israel passage; the Moabites try to have Israel cursed; Sihon and Og attack them and are defeated (chs. 21–22). Nevertheless Balaam recalls the phrasing of Genesis 12:3 when he says, “Blessed are those who bless you, and cursed are those who curse you” (Num. 24:9). The implication is that nations who treat Israel generously by blessing her will themselves be blessed.

Place in the Bible

The events of Numbers are often mentioned elsewhere in Scripture. Its episodes are taken as showcase examples of Israel’s sinfulness and God’s reaction to it. Deuteronomy relates the story of the spies (Numbers 13–14) to remind the new generation not to repeat the unbelief of their parents, who, having reached the border of Canaan, refused to enter it (Deut. 1:19–32). The book of Ezekiel draws on the laws of Numbers to demonstrate the guilt of Jerusalem and explain why it deserved to be destroyed. The Psalms refer to incidents from the wilderness wanderings (e.g., Ps. 95:8–11; 135:10–12), and Psalms 105 and 106 relate the story in more detail. The priestly blessing (Num. 6:24–26) seems to have inspired various psalmists (see Psalms 67, 120–134). These episodes are used both as reminders of God’s goodness in the past (e.g., Ps. 136:16–22) and to encourage future loyalty to the law (Ps. 105:45).

The NT also draws on Numbers to make similar points for the Christian church. John 1:14 speaks of the Word dwelling (lit., “tabernacling”) among believers. John 3:14 refers to the serpent Moses set up (Num. 21:4–9) as imaging Christ on the cross. Both Jude 11 and Revelation 2:14 see Balaam’s error as a danger facing the early church. But it is the apostle Paul in 1 Corinthians 10:2–11 who makes the most use of Numbers. After mentioning the water and manna God had supplied in the wilderness (Num. 11:11–35; 20:2–13), he continues, “Nevertheless, with most of them God was not pleased, for they were overthrown in the wilderness [Numbers 11; 14; 16–17]. Now these things took place as examples for us, that we might not desire evil as they did. Do not be idolaters as some of them were. . . . We must not indulge in sexual immorality as some of them did, and twenty-three thousand fell in a single day [Numbers 25]. We must not put Christ to the test, as some of them did . . . and were destroyed by the Destroyer [21:5–9]. Now these things happened to them as an example, but they were written down for our instruction.”

History of Salvation Summary

Numbers continues the story of God’s people, following them from Mount Sinai to the verge of the Jordan River. The book shows the steadfast purpose of God to fashion a people for himself who will display his image to the world, and out of which his appointed Savior will arise. The unfaithfulness of the members of that people puts God’s steadfastness to the test; but whereas the unfaithful members suffer God’s punishment, the people as a whole are preserved and shaped. (For an explanation of the “History of Salvation,” see the Overview of the Bible. See also History of Salvation in the Old Testament: Preparing the Way for Christ.)

The Large Numbers in the Pentateuch

The census lists recorded in Numbers 1 and 26 have been a matter of considerable debate among scholars since the early 1900s. The grand total of warriors recorded in Numbers 1:46 comes to 603,550—which is the same number recorded in the first census (Ex. 38:26), and very similar to the number in the third census recorded in Numbers 26:51, which was taken nearly 40 years after the first census in Numbers. Since these totals include only male warriors between the ages of 20 and 60 (excluding women, children, and older men), 603,550 warriors would suggest a total population of something more than 2 million.

The Problem. Three main problems have been raised regarding whether the actual number of Israelites who were delivered from Egypt and led by Moses through the wilderness for 40 years could have been this large. The first objection (1) suggests that it is difficult to imagine how so many people (more than 2 million) could have survived for 40 years in the wilderness, including their highly organized encampment around the tabernacle and their frequent relocation during these years. Though this certainly would not be impossible—given the fact of God’s miraculous provision of manna, quail, and water, and given the cloud of God’s presence—the sudden influx of such a large population would nonetheless have been difficult to assimilate into this geographic area. A second objection (2) suggests that the archaeological evidence for the overall population of the Promised Land just after the exodus seems to be well below 3 million. Related to this, other texts (e.g., Ex. 23:29–30; Deut. 7:6–7, 21) suggest that there were not enough Israelites to take possession of the Promised Land all at once. A third objection (3) suggests that some of the numbers in general seem to reflect mathematical oddities (most figures are rounded to even 100s) and that the ratio of adult males to firstborn males seems quite large (27 to 1).

Proposed Solutions. Briefly stated, the proposed solutions may be summarized under the following four explanations:

1. The figures should be taken at face value. In this case, it is assumed that the people were sustained, protected, and led by God’s miraculous provision and presence during the 40 years in the wilderness; that the Promised Land was more fertile in ancient times; and that the number of firstborn sons (22,273; see Num. 3:43) corresponds to the number who were born during the 13-month period since the exodus. Those who support this position argue that the author of Numbers seems to be taking the numbers at face value, since they all add up correctly even when different methods of tabulation are used (cf. 1:46 with 2:32).

2. The figures should be taken at face value but they correspond to the population of Israel at a later date, possibly in the time of David. This suggestion, advocated mainly in the mid-twentieth century, has lost favor, largely because it does not correspond well with the apparent population in the time of David. Also, the tribes of Simeon had already been merged with the tribe of Judah in David’s time, whereas the two tribes are clearly distinct in the lists in Numbers 1 and 26.

3. The numbers were changed due to scribal misunderstanding. This view suggests that the numbers were originally much smaller, but that larger numbers were substituted later due to scribal misunderstanding of the Hebrew word ’elep, which can be translated either as “thousand” or “group” or “clan.” Thus it has been proposed that a number that now appears in Hebrew as 46,500 (1:21) originally meant 46 groups totaling 500 persons. Following this hypothesis, there would have been a total of 598 families, with a total of 5,550 male warriors, yielding a total population of about 20,000. This hypothesis, however, presents other difficulties, as do other similar proposals based on the meaning of the Hebrew word ’elep, one of which yields an estimated population of 140,000 and another that proposes a total population of 72,000. Those who support this general line of argument agree that it still needs refinement. They also agree that there is no one-size-fits-all solution for every OT case of what may seem to be very large numbers.

4. The numbers are symbolic. Two variations on the symbolic view are: (1) that the figures are based on “gematria,” that is, the symbolic numerical value given to each of the letters in the Hebrew alphabet; or (2) that the figures correspond in a symbolic way to astronomical periods associated with the 12 tribes of Israel. Though some have argued that astronomical symbolism is hinted at in Joseph’s dream (by the way in which the sun, moon, and 11 stars bowed down to Joseph), it is difficult to apply this symbolism in a comprehensive and consistent way.

Summary. Since these numbers claim to be census figures, the natural presupposition is that they are to be taken at face value. And although this presupposition is not without its difficulty, there is no obvious solution to the problems posed by these census figures. In any case, the theological message of this section in Numbers is clear—namely, (1) that every eligible adult male in Israel must be prepared and committed to fight in the Lord’s army, and (2) that all the people of Israel who were delivered from Egypt are the elect people of God, but they must confirm God’s choice by their wholehearted participation in the realization of their calling (see further Ex. 32:32–33; Ps. 87:6; Isa. 4:3; Dan. 12:1; Mal. 3:16).

2:1 The offering of the fruitfulness of the land prefigures the honor given to God through the fruitfulness of Christ (John 13:31–32; 1 Cor. 15:23).

3:1 Most of the peace offering is eaten by the worshiper (7:15–16), signifying fellowship with and blessing from God. It is fulfilled in Christ’s reconciliation and giving himself as food (John 6:52–57; Rom. 5:9–11).

4:2 The promise of forgiveness is fulfilled in Christ’s giving himself as a sacrifice for sin (Rom. 8:3; Heb. 10:1–10).

4:12 The position outside the camp prefigures Christ’s crucifixion outside Jerusalem (Heb. 13:11–14).

5:1 Sins of falsehood and sins against holiness are forgiven in anticipation of Christ’s work in holiness (Heb. 9:23–26; 10:11–20).

6:13 The continuation of the altar fire indicates the insufficiency of repeated sacrifices (Heb. 10:1–4), in contrast to the sufficiency of Christ’s sacrifice (Heb. 10:10) and intercession (Heb. 7:25).

7:20 Fellowship with God and with the things of God requires holiness, prefiguring the holiness of Christ purifying us (Heb. 10:10; 12:14).

Taken from the ESV study bible article “History of Salvation in the OT

One of the ways to look at the Levitical sacrifices is like buying with credit.  The author of Hebrews emphatically says, “for it is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins” (Hebrews 10:4).  If that’s the case, did these sacrifices outlined in Leviticus 1-7 do anything for the worshiping Israelite?  The answer is, “yes and no”.

On one hand, yes, the sacrifices were God’s ordained means in that chapter of redemptive history to be made right with Him.  But, no, these sacrifices didn’t ultimately provide an adequate atonement for sins.

Instead, though, they were like buying something with a credit card.  It’s as if with every animal killed, the credit card was swiped.  It purchased forgiveness, but that forgiveness would still need to be paid for.  And so, Christ not only fulfills the picture that the sacrifices are painting, but he also makes the payment!  The debt is paid.

I know there is a day coming, though, when she will walk through our front door, hardly being able to contain her smile, lift up her left ring finger and say, “Daddy, look at my rock.”

It is at that point that what once had stunning glory will pale in comparison to the beautiful radiance of an engagement diamond.  In fact, the two rocks won’t even compare to on another.

From Exodus 19 on, the glory of the Old Covenant has been on display.  Could you imagine the scene if you were an Israelite?  Mountain was wrapped in smoke and trembled (19:18); there was thunder and flashes of lightning and the sound of the trumpet (20:18); thick darkness (20:20); the appearance of the Lord was like a devouring fire on top of the mountain in the sight of the people of Israel (24:17); and the skin of Moses’ face was shining” (34:35).

Could you imagine seeing all of this?  What incredible glory.  But, why did Moses put a veil over his face?  Why didn’t Moses want Israel to see the glory that shone on his face (34:33, 35)?

Second Corinthians 3:7-18 gives us the answer.  Moses had seen enough to know that the “rock” that was the Old Covenant was only a crystal.  While it was glorious at the time, it was going to pale in comparison to what was to come.  It was a temporary glory of stone and condemnation.  But, the diamond to come would be a permanent glory of the Spirit (vs. stone) and righteousness (vs. condemnation).

In effect, Moses was saying, don’t think that this crystal is the ultimate glory.  There will be a diamond and his name is Jesus.  Don’t look at my face, look at His  – “For God, who said ‘Let light shine out of darkness,’ has shone in our hearts to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ” (2 Cor. 4:7).

Let’s glory in the diamond of Christ.  Let’s hold up the diamond of the gospel in such a way that as the light hits it, it gives forth a radiance that shows its supremacy and worth.  We’re not dealing here with the glory of a “crystal”…but of a diamond.

In Exodus 32, on many different levels and in many different ways, the “foot is numb”.  The most obvious is that the people worshiped the golden calf.  In fact, this one is so obvious that it isn’t just numbness, but infection and gangrene has so disfigured the foot that it is obvious to everyone that there is a more serious problem.

But, there is another symptom that is much less obvious…at least in my life it’s less obvious.  It is Aaron’s response to Moses when confronted with his involvement in making the golden calf.  He says, “So they gave it [their gold] to me, and I threw it in the fire, and out came this calf.” (v. 24).  The actual account in v. 4 says “And he received the gold from their hand and fashioned it with a graven tool and made a golden calf.”

It is the ever so deceptive sin of self-justification. It wasn’t that Aaron was foggy on the details or was just giving a quick summary.  He recounted word for word what the people said to him as they asked him to make the calf (v. 1 and 23).  In other words, he was specific with their sin, but glossed over his.

But, the self-justification was simply a symptom of a deeper sin – the sin of misplaced worship.  Isaiah shows us what it looks like when we truly encounter the Living God – “And I said: ‘woe is me!  For I am lost; for I am a man of unclean lips, and I dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips; for my eyes have seen the King, the Lord of Hosts!’” (6:5)

In other words, our idols never truly provide what we are ultimately longing for – acceptance and love.  Why wouldn’t Aaron simply confess what he did?  Ultimately, he wanted to be seen to be better than he really was.  Why?  Because when we are exposed for who we really are, we could experience rejection and isolation.

Isaiah, on the other hand, saw the Lord and was O.K. with standing exposed.  He didn’t only see holiness, but he also found what we all long for – to be totally known, yet fully loved.  There was no more hiding…no more pretense…no more self-justification.  He saw a God who didn’t gloss over sin, or ignore it, but burned in His Holiness, yet forgave with overwhelming mercy – which ultimately is the picture of Christ in the gospel.

The golden calf didn’t deliver.  Misplaced worship never does.  Our idols will always leave us deceived – deceived into thinking that cars, grades, ministry success, houses, money, popularity, sex, etc… will make us more loved and accepted.  And so, we bow to worship them, all the while needing a vision of the Living God.

• How have you recently justified yourself by covering your sin?
• What idol(s) have you been thinking would provide you with the love and acceptance that you have been longing for?
• How can you give yourself to finding your greatest longings met in Christ?

finishing chapter 31 I was so encouraged… it was the part about the Sabbath… it said something like “but most of all” [or some sort of superlative] “keep the Sabbaths…” and God said it was so Israel could remember that HE sanctifies them. I don’t know what the Hebrew really means there… it might say it’s so Israel could remember that God “set them apart.” I think “sanctification” might have a slightly different meaning to Christians now. It makes me think of the progressive sanctification that my pastor always talks about… that as we actively try to walk in the power of the Holy Spirit, God will make us more like Christ over time. And these two ideas are related. But I think EITHER meaning fits with this idea of Sabbath. And I thought “if I really believed that GOD sanctifies me – that He both sets me apart and makes me more like Christ as I humble myself to the Holy Spirit – then I wouldn’t feel like I had to DO STUFF all the time. It would be easier to take a Sabbath.” I wonder if to the degree that we understand that God sanctifies us, we will willingly and easily take a Sabbath. That and God said he would kill people if they didn’t. Anyway, that’s what I am thinking about today…

Posted by Tricia Dealy

1. The holy Lord is present in the midst of his people (Ex. 40:34; Lev. 1:1). The people of Israel must therefore properly address their sin and impurity and must strive for personal holiness.

2. In order to approach God, worshipers must be wholehearted in their devotion (1:1–6:7; 22:17–30).

3. Those who are called to be spiritual leaders, such as priests, bear a heavier responsibility than do the laypeople (chs. 4; 21). In addition to the outward holiness that the priests are granted when ordained, they are constantly commanded to maintain inner holiness (chs. 8; 9; 10; 21).

4. As seen in the Day of Atonement ritual (ch. 16), the total cleansing of sins and uncleanness is done when the innermost part of the tent of meeting is purified. Ultimate purification of uncleanness is impossible from the human side.

5. Atonement is a gracious act of the Lord by which sins and impurities can be dealt with (17:11).

History of Salvation Summary

The book of Leviticus is concerned with what it means to be the holy people of a holy God: it provides instruction for conduct, both in private and as members of the body of God’s people, and it details the ways in which the sacrifices and priesthood are to be administered as God’s gracious provision for his people’s failures. Without doubt, the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ is the culmination of salvation history, according to which he fulfilled the goals of the various offerings, the holy objects, the role of the chief priest, and the holy feasts. He also, by his resurrection, entered into his Davidic kingship and has initiated the era in which the people of God include the Gentiles and are no longer defined as a nation-state. Because of this, Christ’s atoning work made obsolete the literal observance of not only the animal sacrifices and offerings but also the temple worship as a whole.

But as long as believers continue to bear their sinful nature (which they do until they die), the atoning grace of Christ does not make Leviticus irrelevant to NT believers, since principles can still be learned from the underlying laws in this book. In fact, NT writers such as the apostles Paul and Peter employ language taken from Leviticus in their exhortations to believers to follow Christ (e.g., offerings, the tabernacle, priesthood, and feasts). NT authors use the burnt offering (1 Pet. 1:19), sin offering (e.g., Rom. 8:3; Heb. 5:3; 13:11; 1 Pet. 3:18; 1 John 2:2; 4:10), and guilt offering (possibly 1 Cor. 15:3, using Isa. 53:10) to explain what Jesus accomplished on the cross, and the peace offering to explain the Christian Lord’s Supper (1 Cor. 10:16–18). Thus, the book of Leviticus serves as a constant reminder of the person and work of Jesus Christ and challenges believers to apply his gospel.

Interpretative Issues

Leviticus is a difficult book, mainly because modern readers have no firsthand experience of ancient rituals and the worship practices of the tabernacle. For this reason, readers should be aware of the potential pitfall of imposing concepts or distinctions that are foreign to the biblical text itself. With this general warning in mind, several particular interpretative issues may be mentioned.

Ritual and ethical commands. To begin, there is some debate about how to understand the relationship between the “ritual” regulations of chapters 1–16 and what are commonly called the “moral/ethical” commands of chapters 17–26. It is not uncommon for modern readers to see “ritual” and “ethics” as two very separate matters and thus to view these two sections of the book as quite different and distinct. Leviticus, however, is more nuanced than that. While it may be true that not every “ethical” law of chapters 17–27 involves a ritual, it is not true that every “ritual” law of chapters 1–16 is disconnected from ethics. In fact, the whole of the book is concerned with Israel’s being “holy” to the Lord, and the ritual laws of chapters 1–16 are just as important in this regard as are the laws of chapters 17–27. From the perspective of Leviticus, there is no such thing as a “nonethical” ritual law. As a result, it is unwise to see chapters 1–16 and chapters 17–27 as two unrelated sections of material. Both are equally concerned with Israel’s holiness to the Lord.

Unclean, clean, holy. Leviticus also often uses the language of “unclean,” “clean,” and “holy” differently than today. With “unclean” and “clean,” for example, most modern readers are tempted to think of that which is “nonhygienic” or “hygienic.” In Leviticus, however, these words do not refer to hygiene at all. Rather, they refer to “ritual states.” (The word “holy” is also used in many contexts to describe a ritual state.) Understanding the concept of ritual states is very important to understanding Leviticus as a whole.

Leviticus sets forth three basic ritual states: the unclean, the clean, and the holy. On the one hand, these categories guide the community with reference to the types of actions a person may (or may not) engage in, or the places that a person may (or may not) go. Those who are unclean, e.g., may not partake of a peace offering (7:20), while those who are clean may (7:19). (A modern analogy might be that of registering to vote: a person who is “registered” may vote, whereas a person who is “unregistered” may not.) There is a distinction to be made between “ritual states” and “moral states.” One who is in the ritual state of holiness is not necessarily more personally righteous than a person who is simply clean or unclean (just as a person who is “registered” to vote is not necessarily more righteous than a person who is not).

How ritual purity relates to moral purity. Even though ritual states and moral states are different, the ritual states also seemed to represent or symbolize grades of moral purity. The highest grade of moral purity was that of the Lord himself, who was “holy” and who dwelt in the “Holy of Holies.” By constantly calling the Israelites to ritual purity in all aspects of life, the Lord was reminding them of their need for also seeking after moral purity in all aspects of life (20:24–26).

Interpreting the rituals and ceremonies. A further challenge in Leviticus is how to interpret the various rituals and ceremonies. In particular, how should the individual acts and objects that make up a ritual be understood? Answering this question can be difficult, for the simple reason that Leviticus rarely explains what various ritual actions or objects mean. (One of the few exceptions is 17:11, where sacrificial animal blood is said to be the “life” of the animal.) Some help is provided, however, by asking questions about the general function(s) and the specific function(s) of the ritual. Generally speaking, rituals may function in several ways: e.g., to address aspects of the human condition (such as impurity or sinfulness), to serve as a way for the offerer to express emotions or desires to the Lord, and to underscore various truths about the Lord or the human condition. (In many instances, one ritual may accomplish all of these things.) It is helpful to ask which of these general functions is in view in the ritual being considered. Related to this, one should also ask, “What is the specific goal/function of this particular ritual as a whole?” Answering these two questions provides an interpretative framework in which to understand the individual actions of the ritual (much as a paragraph is an interpretative framework for the sentences in it). For example, if a ritual as a whole is meant to express an emotion (general), and more specifically to express praise (specific), then the individual actions or objects of the ritual should somehow contribute to this goal. Though this approach may still leave some questions unanswered, it will usually provide helpful guidelines and protect readers from some of the interpretative excesses of the past.

Another interpretative issue is how one should understand various concepts such as uncleanness, cleanness, and holiness. Great debate accompanies this issue, for the simple reason that Leviticus often provides various laws concerning cleanness and uncleanness without giving an explicit rationale of why something or someone is clean or unclean (e.g., ch. 12). Traditionally, commentators have thought that the rationale behind these rules was to be found in hygienic concerns, polemics against Canaanite religious customs, or the symbolic meaning of “death.” (For these and other views, see notes on chs. 11–15.) Of these options, uncleanness as symbolic of death appears to be the only proposal that sufficiently covers many (as opposed to just some) of the cases of uncleanness. (If this is correct, then holiness—which is the polar opposite of uncleanness—could often symbolize “life.”)

NT relevance of commands in Leviticus. What do these legislative texts of Leviticus have to do with the church today? At this point, only a broad picture may be presented, and it will be painted in three brushstrokes, merely offering examples of the value of Leviticus for the Christian believer. First, the sacrificial system of Leviticus has ceased for the people of God; it has been fulfilled in the coming of Christ (cf. Heb. 9:1–14, 24–28; 10:1–14). Yet studying these laws is important because they enable the reader to understand how the work of Christ saves people, since the sacrifices point to different aspects of the meaning of Christ’s sacrifice of himself.

Second, the festal calendar of Israel enumerated in Leviticus (Lev. 23:1–44) has strongly shaped the Christian church’s traditional calendar. The three main national pilgrim feasts of Israel are the Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Harvest, and the Feast of Booths. For those churches that follow the traditional calendar, these celebrations find their climax in Good Friday, Easter, and Pentecost. To fully understand the Christian celebrations, one must see their initial purpose in the OT. At the same time, some aspects of the legislation in Leviticus (such as the laws regulating clean and unclean foods) had the goal of separating Israel from the other nations. Although this separation has been done away with in the Christian era, these laws still teach the people of God to be morally clean (see note on 11:1–47).

Third, the entire Levitical Holiness Code (chs. 17–27) deals with sanctification, i.e., the idea of holiness affecting how one lives in the covenant community. The NT applies to Christians the same principle of life stated in Leviticus 11:44, “be holy, for I am holy” (quoted in 1 Pet. 1:16). In fact, many of the moral requirements reflected in the Holiness Code reveal the kinds of moral conduct that are still either pleasing or displeasing to God (cf., e.g., Lev. 19:11–18, 35–36). On the other hand, several details of the Holiness Code concern more symbolic aspects of holiness that should no longer be followed in the Christian era (such as laws prohibiting garments of two kinds of cloth, 19:19; prohibiting the shaving of the edges of one’s beard, 21:5; and excluding people with physical defects from presenting offerings, 21:17–23). Further, the NT envisions a people of God that transcends national boundaries, and thus it dissolves the bond between the specifically theocratic system of government that was OT Israel. Therefore, current civil governments need not replicate the civil laws specific to the Mosaic theocracy (such as capital punishment for adultery in 20:10 or for blasphemy in 24:16, or the Sabbath year and Jubilee year in 25:1–22), although of course all governments must pursue justice (and Leviticus may certainly help Christians develop their notions of justice).

Without going into much detail, one is extreme failure (Judah sleeping with his daughter who he thinks is a prostitute) and the other is extreme obedience (Joseph fleeing extreme temptation).

But, as I read these passages, because I know the end of the story, I am amazed by grace.  Salvation ultimately doesn’t come through Joseph and his upright behavior and character.  Now, a temporary deliverance comes through Joseph as God raises him up to save his family.  But, the rescue is only temporary.  THE Rescuer doesn’t come from Joseph.  The Rescuer comes through Judah’s affair with his daughter – through the baby born to them (Perez).

Because I am a performer who doesn’t ultimately grasp grace, I want the rescuer to come through Joseph – he deserves it.  Plus, if He came through Joseph, it is one less scar on the reputation of the King of all Kings (no one likes having in his genealogy incest of the grossest kind – much less if you are King).

But, while I wish it were otherwise, I need the savior to come through Judah’s immorality.  I need to know that anyone (and I mean ANYONE) can be related to the Rescuing King.  It is not those that can stand up against temptation who need a savior, it is those who most miserably fail.

What Judah didn’t realize was that the vile sin that resulted in the impregnating of his daughter, would be cleansed by the offspring of that son.  And, what I don’t realize is that my vile sin is cleansed by that same Offspring.

Thank God for Judah…a portrait of grace.  And, thank God for the Rescuer…that He’s not ashamed to be related to me.

Theme

The overarching theme of Exodus is the fulfillment of God’s promises to the patriarchs that he would make their descendants a great nation. This is carried out despite the opposition of the greatest superpower in the ancient world of the time, Egypt, and despite the unbelief and disobedience of the people themselves. Exodus shows that the success of the exodus must be ascribed first to the power and character of God, who remembers his promises, punishes sin, and forgives the penitent. Second, it highlights both the faithfulness of Moses, who follows divine instructions exactly, and his prayerfulness. It is his prayer, e.g., that leads to victory over Amalek (17:8–16) and his intercession that persuades God to pardon the people after they had begun worshiping the golden calf (chs. 32–34).

Purpose, Occasion, and Background

Exodus is the second book in the Pentateuch and picks up the narrative of Genesis by focusing on the time when the sons of Jacob (1:1–6) have grown into the people of Israel (1:8). The first half of the book records events that fulfill the promise to Abraham that his descendants would sojourn in a land that was not their own, be afflicted for 400 years, and then come out by the Lord’s hand with numerous possessions (Gen. 15:13–14). The narrative of Israel’s preservation in and exodus out of Egypt is sometimes referred to as being like a second creation account both because the vocabulary seems to evoke the first chapters of Genesis (see Ex. 1:7) and because it is through Abraham’s descendants that the Lord has promised to bless all nations and thus to restore his presence and purposes in the world (Gen. 12:1–3).

The second half of the book narrates the events surrounding the covenant being revealed, confirmed, broken, and renewed (Exodus 19; 24; 32–34; 35–40) and records the covenant instructions that the Lord revealed to Israel through Moses at Mount Sinai (chs. 20–23; 25–31). The instructions begin with the Ten Commandments (20:1–21) and include a lengthy section detailing the specifics for the construction of the tabernacle and its service (25:1–31:18). But this is not the totality of the Lord’s covenant instructions, which are recorded further in both Leviticus and Numbers before Israel finally leaves the region of Mount Sinai for the land of Canaan (Num. 10:11ff.).

Numbers describes how the generation who came out of Egypt ended up wandering in the wilderness instead of entering Canaan. Then the book of Deuteronomy records Moses’ reaffirmation of the covenant instructions recorded in Exodus through Numbers and appeals to the next generation who will enter the land to keep the commandments by fearing the Lord and walking in his ways (Deut. 8:6).

Key Themes

The events and instructions narrated in the book of Exodus are explicitly framed as the Lord remembering his covenant promises to Abraham (2:24; 3:6, 14–17; 6:2–8). The promises include land, numerous offspring, and blessing for both Abraham’s descendants and the nations (Gen. 12:1–3), which are rooted in the covenant relationship with the Lord: “I will establish my covenant between me and you and your offspring after you . . . and I will be their God” (Gen. 17:7–8). The covenant promises in Genesis were made with Abraham and reaffirmed with Isaac and Jacob. Exodus highlights the role that Moses fills as the covenant mediator through whom the Lord reveals his purposes to his people and sustains the covenant relationship. Each of these aspects will be described briefly in relation to key themes in Exodus.

1. Offspring. As was noted above, the Lord promised Abraham that he would have innumerable offspring (Gen. 15:5) who would also be afflicted for 400 years in a foreign land and come out with great possessions (Gen. 15:13). Through Joseph, the Lord brings 70 individuals into the land of Egypt (Ex. 1:1–6) who became numerous (1:7) even amid affliction (1:8–12) and were brought out of Egypt as a large multitude (12:37–38). Exodus also focuses on how the people of Israel are shown to be Abraham’s offspring, both in the faithful actions of some of its members (the midwives fear God not Pharaoh, 1:15–22) and particularly by the fact that the Lord repeatedly refers to them as “my people” in his words to Israel (3:7) and before Pharaoh (5:1). The Lord is indicating both to Pharaoh and to the people that, although they have been enslaved in Egypt for a long time, it is his covenant promise to them as Abraham’s offspring that truly governs their identity.

2. Land. The entrance into the land of Canaan is not realized within the events narrated in Exodus, but the promise of the land is held before Israel as a place of provision that is “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17) and also as a place they will inherit and where they will live as the Lord’s people (6:7–8). The promise of the land is significant for what Israel’s response in certain situations reveals about their understanding of both the Lord’s presence and his promise to bring them to Canaan. When the people are hungry after coming out of Egypt and wish they were back in slavery by the “meat pots” (16:3), the contrast between where they are headed and what they long for in Egypt shows that they have not yet taken to heart what the Lord’s deliverance is to signify for them. Their prospects in Canaan are declared to depend on their fidelity in serving the Lord alone (23:23–32), which the Israelites also have not taken fully to heart, as demonstrated by the incident of the golden calf before they ever set foot in Canaan (32:1–6).

3. Blessing. The Lord’s promise to bless all nations through Abraham looks forward to how Israel’s life is to mediate the presence of the Lord to the nations around them (they are to be “a kingdom of priests,” “a holy nation,” 19:6). Israel is to live before God in the world, obeying the covenant instructions that he will reveal to them (see Deut. 4:6–8). The events of the plagues and exodus present the opportunity for people back in Egypt and the surrounding nations to join the Lord’s people in response to what they have either experienced (thus Israel goes out a “mixed multitude,” Ex. 12:38) or what they have heard (e.g., Josh. 2:10). The “recognition formula” (see note on Ex. 7:5) includes the expectation that the Egyptians will know that Israel’s God is the true God (7:5; 14:4, 18).

4. Covenant mediator. A key theme of Exodus is that Moses is the one who is called by God to mediate between the Lord and his people. A key indicator of whether Israel will desire to live as the Lord’s people is seen in how they respond to Moses as the one who speaks on the Lord’s behalf. The story of Moses begins with his preservation at birth (2:1–10) and in Midian (2:11–22) but is highlighted through the Lord’s presence and speech in his call at the burning bush (3:1–4:17) and then in the fact that the Lord speaks to Moses alone in Egypt (e.g., 7:1), calls Moses alone up to Mount Sinai (19:20; 24:2), listens to Moses’ intercession on behalf of the people (32:11–14), speaks with Moses “face to face” (34:29–35), and has Moses oversee the assembling of the tabernacle (40:16–33) and the consecration of both it and the priests who will serve in it (40:9–15).

5. Covenant presence. The presence of the Lord is highlighted throughout the book of Exodus: he appears to Moses in the burning bush (3:1–4:17); he comes down on Mount Sinai in the sight of the people (19:16–20); he reveals himself to the leaders of Israel (24:9–11); he shows Moses his glory and declares his covenant character (34:1–10). Furthermore, a large part of the second half of the book focuses on the instructions for (25:1–31:17) and assembling of the tabernacle (35:1–40:33), in which the Lord promises to dwell among his people (29:43–46; 40:34–38). Just as the ground on which Moses stood at the burning bush was holy because of the Lord’s presence, so it is also his presence among his people that will make them holy. And in light of the covenant breach with the golden calf (32:1–6), Exodus ends with the lingering question of just how a sinful people will live with a holy God in her midst, which is a question that the instruction recorded in Leviticus will begin to address.

History of Salvation Summary

Within the story of man’s salvation, the book of Exodus describes a great forward step. The book of Genesis showed the plight of the human race and its need for salvation. The call of Abraham began the process of divine rescue. Then Jacob’s migration to Egypt seemed to put the plan aside. But in a most dramatic fashion Exodus shows the divine plan reactivated. Heaven-sent plagues force the Egyptians to let Israel go. Then, accompanied by the cloud of God’s presence, they travel toward the promised land of Canaan. Pausing en route at Mount Sinai, they hear God declare to them his laws and seal his covenant with them. Israel is already God’s people by virtue of the promises to Abraham; this covenant establishes the people as a theocracy, in which the covenant specifies the operations of the civil and social, as well as religious, aspects of Israel’s life. Despite their prompt disregard of their covenantal relationship in the worship of the golden calf, the covenant is renewed and the tabernacle is built, a pledge of God’s continuing presence with them. The book ends with the glory of God filling the tabernacle, ready to lead the people to the Promised Land.

The NT sees the OT exodus story as the pattern for the ministry and death of Christ. In him God “dwelt [lit., “tabernacled”] among us, and we have seen his glory” (John 1:14). Jesus sojourned in Egypt, and then came out, fulfilling the pattern of Israel (Matt. 2:15, using Hos. 11:1). At the Last Supper, a Passover meal (cf. Exodus 12–13), Jesus referred to “the new covenant in my blood” (Luke 22:20), echoing Moses’ words in Exodus 24:8. He also described his death as the exodus (esv, “departure”; Gk. exodos) that he would accomplish at Jerusalem (Luke 9:31). As Jesus reenacted the exodus in his own life and death, so must his followers. Baptism into his death identifies the believer with the Israelites’ passage through the Red Sea, and partaking of his spiritual food and drink identifies the believer with their experiences in the wilderness (1 Cor. 10:1–3). Finally, in heaven, believers shall sing the Song of Moses and the Lamb (Rev. 15:3; cf. Exodus 15).