We are Campus Crusade for Christ and as our founder Bill Bright would to say, “Win the campus today and change the world tomorrow.”

The mission of Campus Crusade for Christ is to turn lost students into Christ-centered laborers. Our spiritual mandate is found in Matthew 28:18-20.

Learn more about WSN.

But they need your help putting their faith into action. 

A million meals for a million people! These students want to assemble more than 1 million meals for desperate victims of the Haiti earthquake who continue to endure unimaginable suffering. Attached to each meal is a clear gospel message in their language to help reach them for Christ. 

Now here’s where you come in. Incredibly, each meal and an explanation of the gospel in Haitian Creole costs just 30 cents each! That means your generosity will have a huge impact . . .

• $27 will reach 90 quake victims,

• $54 will reach 180 quake victims,

and
 • $102 will reach 340 quake victims.

Your gift now will show Haiti quake survivors that God loves them, cares about their suffering and wants them to come to know Him personally. So please help by sending a gift now. Thank you! 

Yours for reaching the lost, 

Mark Gauthier 
U.S. National Campus Director, Campus Crusade for Christ 

P.S. Big Break for Haiti kicks off soon. So please help now. Each 30 cents you send will provide a lifesaving meal for a struggling Haiti earthquake victim. You’ll also be telling them about the good news of Jesus Christ.

Author and Title

The book is named for its main character, Ruth, a Moabite widow who married the Bethlehemite Boaz. She became an ancestor of King David (4:17, 22) and thus an ancestor of the Messiah (Matt. 1:1, 5–6). The author of Ruth is never named in the Bible. According to rabbinic tradition (Babylonian Talmud, Baba Bathra 14a–15b), Samuel is the author. This is unlikely, however, since Samuel died before David actually became king, and Ruth 4:17–22 implies that David’s kingship was an established fact at the time of writing.

Date

The mention of David (4:17) and his genealogy (4:18–22) places the writing after David’s accession to the throne (2 Samuel 2) in c. 1010 b.c. The narrator’s explanation of a custom once current “in former times in Israel” (Ruth 4:7) distances him from the story’s events, which occurred “in the days when the judges ruled” (1:1). Therefore, the book could have been written any time after 1010 b.c. by an author using accurate oral or written material as historical sources.

Theme

This book highlights how God’s people experience his sovereignty, wisdom, and covenant kindness. These often come disguised in hard circumstances and are mediated through the kindness of others.

Purpose, Occasion, and Background

Given the book of Ruth’s interest in all Israel (4:7, 11), it may have been written in hopes that the 12 tribes, which divided into two nations c. 930 b.c. (see 1 Kings 12:1–20), would reunite. The story itself takes place in the time of the judges (after the conquest and before c. 1050 b.c.), before a king was in place to reign over a united kingdom. This book explains the providential ancestry of David, who would become such a king.

Content

In the period of the judges, Elimelech, Naomi, and their sons leave Bethlehem because of a famine to sojourn in Moab (see map). Naomi’s husband, Elimelech, dies there. Mahlon and Chilion, the sons, marry Moabite women, Ruth and Orpah. Ten years later the sons die too, leaving no children. Naomi is bereft of family (1:1–5). Learning that the famine in Israel is over, she decides to return to Bethlehem; Orpah stays behind, but Ruth accompanies Naomi (1:6–22). At harvest time, Ruth goes to glean in a field that happens to belong to Elimelech’s relative, Boaz (2:1–23). Naomi knows he is an eligible kinsman-redeemer. Following Naomi’s daring plan, in a midnight encounter at the threshing floor Ruth boldly asks him, as a redeemer, to marry her (3:1–18). After a closer kinsman refuses to take Ruth, Boaz redeems all the property of the deceased and marries Ruth (4:1–12). They have a son, Obed, who becomes the grandfather of King David (4:13–22).

Ruth’s words in the book (as compared with Naomi’s or Boaz’s) are surprisingly few; the story, however, hangs on them. Ruth expresses her lifelong commitment to Naomi, “May the Lord do so to me . . . if anything but death parts me from you” (1:17), which takes her from Moab to Judah. She resolves to provide for Naomi (“Let me go . . . and glean,” 2:2), which brings her from Bethlehem to Boaz’s field. She invites Boaz to “spread your wings over your servant” (3:9), which leads her from childless widowhood to marriage and motherhood (4:13).

Key Themes

1. Kindness. Ruth shows Naomi kindness (Hb. hesed, see note on 3:10), particularly in leaving her country and family to care for her mother-in-law (1:16–17; 2:11, 18, 23), because she loves her (4:15). Then Boaz shows kindness (see note on 2:20) in his welcome to Ruth, acting as a kinsman-redeemer (4:9–10) and marrying Ruth (4:13). Human kindness reflects the kindness (or “steadfast love”) that the Lord shows to his people (cf. Ex. 15:13; Deut. 7:8–9; Ps. 103:4; 106:7, 10; 136:10–15).

2. Redemption. Redemption is bound to kindness and is at the heart of the story (2:20). “Redeem” (Hb. ga’al), “redeemer” (Hb. go’el), and “redemption” (Hb. ge’ullah) appear 23 times. The book of Ruth describes two legal institutions combined in one practice (which the Law of Moses does not require), namely, property redemption by a near kinsman and the “levirate” marriage. Property redemption by a relative assured that land would not remain in perpetuity outside the family (see Lev. 25:23–25). Levirate marriage (from Latin levir, “husband’s brother”) involves a childless widow marrying her husband’s brother to provide an heir for the dead husband (Deut. 25:5–6; cf. note on Matt. 22:24). Differences in Ruth, as compared with these laws, reflect customs applicable to particular circumstances. Boaz, a close relative (but not the closest), redeemed the property (Ruth 4:9), married Ruth (4:10, 13), and fathered Obed (4:13, 17), who became heir to the property of the deceased.

Once redemption occurred, Ruth and Naomi’s desperate conditions radically changed (4:13–17). This reversal is highlighted by contrasts: living/dead (1:8; 2:20); find/seek rest (1:9; 3:1); pleasant/bitter (1:20); full/empty (1:21; 3:17; see note on 4:15); last/first kindness (3:10). The resolution to the narrative conflict is Boaz’s act of redemption (4:9–10), resulting in blessing for Ruth (in marriage, conception, and giving birth; 4:13) and for Naomi (in restored and nourished life in her old age; 4:14–15). Redemption also brought blessing to the community (4:11–12) and—through David—to the nation (4:14, 17).

History of Salvation Summary

As a foreigner and ancestor of David (4:17, 22), Ruth is a forerunner of the universal blessing that Christ’s redemptive work ushered in. Many OT prophecies anticipate a new David (e.g., Jer. 33:15, 17; Ezek. 37:24; Hos. 3:5; Zech. 12:7–10) reigning over Israel and incorporating the Gentiles into his benevolent empire (e.g., Isa. 55:3–5; Amos 9:11–12). This expectation is fulfilled in David’s “son,” Jesus the Christ (or Messiah; cf. Matt. 1:1–6; Luke 3:31–33; Acts 13:23; Rom. 1:3–5). In him, the “gospel” preached beforehand to Abraham (Gen. 12:3; Rom. 15:8–12; Gal. 3:8), that all nations will be blessed, is fully realized (Rom. 4:9–12; Gal. 3:7–9, 14). Through Christ, David’s throne is reestablished forever (Acts 15:16; Rev. 3:7; 5:5; 22:16). Christ’s reign is universal (Matt. 28:18–20; Rom. 1:5; 15:8–12). In him, redeemed people of all nations, no longer strangers and aliens, become fellow citizens in God’s household (Eph. 2:11–22). (For an explanation of the “History of Salvation,” see the Overview of the Bible. See also History of Salvation in the Old Testament: Preparing the Way for Christ.)

Literary Features

In terms of compact storytelling, Ruth is a masterpiece of narrative art. It is densely packed, yet the charm of the book is evident even to the most unsophisticated reader. The book of Ruth is the classic love story of the Bible. Few stories in the Bible are told from a woman’s viewpoint, but in the story of Ruth, not only is a woman the protagonist but the world of the story is a woman’s world, and the writer gives attention to feminine values and feelings. Of course Boaz in his role as kinsman-redeemer cuts a striking figure as a man who embodies the Lord’s own kindness. The story exalts virtuous womanhood and strong manhood.

The overall genre is story or narrative, but several further subtypes converge as well. Ruth is a love story. It is also an idyll, i.e., a brief story describing a simple, pleasant aspect of rural and domestic life. As that definition suggests, Ruth has affinities with pastoral (rural) literature, and in this case the idealized rural world provides a setting for the idealized romance of the book: even though readers know from the first verse that the story is set in tumultuous times, these do not come into view. The story is also a hero story built around the life of an exemplary heroine as well as featuring an idealized male hero. Boaz is a rarity in the Bible, a character who gets a uniformly positive portrayal; most other characters reveal their flaws. But this reflects the literary function of Boaz as the embodiment of the Lord’s kindness.

The plot of the story of Ruth is a quest story in which the stated goal is to find Ruth a home (1:9 and 3:1). The plot follows the conventional U-shape of literary “comedy,” with events first descending into potential tragedy and then rising to a happy ending as obstacles to fulfillment are gradually overcome.

The Setting of Ruth

Set in the period of the judges, the book of Ruth records how a famine in Judah forces Naomi and her husband to leave Israel and move to Moab, where their sons marry Moabite women. When Naomi’s husband and sons die, she decides to return to her home in Bethlehem in Judah, and her daughter-in-law Ruth chooses to go with her.

Author and Title

The name of the book of Judges comes from the title given to the 12 leaders (“judges,” whose temporary leadership was both civil and military) of Israel during the period between Joshua and Samuel. The book is anonymous; nowhere in Scripture is any author indicated. The book consists of various blocks of material about different judges, which conceivably could have been written by multiple authors over a period of time. Late Jewish tradition ascribes authorship to Samuel, which is certainly possible. However, in the end, the book’s author is not known.

Date

Date of events. The events in Judges took place in the period between Joshua’s death (either mid-14th or late-13th century b.c.) and the rise of Samuel and Saul (mid-11th century).

Theme

The theme of Judges is the downward spiral of Israel’s national and spiritual life into chaos and apostasy, showing the need for a godly king to lead it (17:6; 21:25).

Purpose, Occasion, and Background

Purpose. The book of Judges was written to show the consequences of religious apostasy and to point the way to a king who, if righteous, would lead the people to God. In contrast to the serene way in which the book of Joshua ends—with all Israel obeying God’s commands, for the most part—the book of Judges shows that, in fact, Israel began to disobey God even during the time of Joshua. This disobedience continued and grew more serious—and more debased—throughout the period of the judges. Time and again Israel turned its back on God and embraced the gods and the ways of the Canaanites, as the introductory summary in 2:16–23 indicates. Israel’s history unfolded in this period in a cyclical or repetitive way: each cycle took Israel further downward in its debasement and apostasy. By the end of the book, Israel had violated its covenant with God in almost every way imaginable.

Occasion. The book of Judges arose out of the apostate conditions of the time. It was written as a justification for the monarchy, since the final verdict of the book—“In those days there was no king in Israel. Everyone did what was right in his own eyes” (21:25)—implies that things would have been different had there been a (godly) king leading the nation: they would have done right in God’s eyes. The next book in the English Bible is Ruth, which ends with a genealogy that points to David, the godly king par excellence (Ruth 4:18–22). Following the book of Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel relate the establishment of the legitimate Davidic monarchy in Israel, which God was pleased to bless (2 Samuel 7). God had planned for kings to rule in Israel from the beginning (Gen. 17:6, 16; 35:11; 49:10), and had even given instructions for their conduct (Deut. 17:14–20). These instructions were very countercultural: rather than a king “like the nations,” where the prevailing model was the king as warrior, Israel’s king was to focus on keeping the Mosaic law (Deut. 17:18–20). If such a king had arisen in the period of the judges, things would have been far different. As it was, Israel’s apostasy pointed to the need for establishing the legitimate kingship under David.

Canaanite religion and culture. The major problem for Israel during the period of the judges was its penchant for turning away from the Lord and toward the gods of the Canaanites. What was it about Canaanite religion and culture that proved to be such an irresistible attraction? The land of Canaan was awe-inspiring to the Israelites, as can be seen in the story of the spies who reported on its wealth and strength (Numbers 13). To a recently freed slave people, accustomed to the hardships of life in the wilderness, the cosmopolitanism and material wealth of Late-Bronze-Age Canaan, with its large urban centers, could not have failed to impress. The Canaanites were clearly superior to the Israelites on many levels: art, literature, architecture, trade, political organization, and more. It is not difficult to see how the Israelites would have been tempted by the elaborate Canaanite religious system, which ostensibly supported—and even provided—all of this.

One prominent feature of Canaanite religion was its highly sexualized orientation. The system of sacred prostitutes—“priestesses” of Baal—allowed people to combine sensual pleasures with worship of Baal. This undoubtedly was attractive to many Israelites (cf. the Israelites seduced by the Moabite women in Numbers 25).

The Setting of Judges

c. 1375/1210 b.c.

The incomplete conquest of the Promised Land set the stage for the book of Judges, which recounts the exploits of various leaders raised up to deliver Israel from their oppressors.

Assessment of the Judges

Two of the most famous judges were anything but paragons of virtue. After an auspicious beginning, Gideon’s badgering God for a confirmatory sign (6:36–40) may indicate a decided lack of faith (or at least fear). Later he made an ephod that became an object of worship and a snare for him, his family, and all Israel (8:24–27). Samson violated all of the main provisions of his Nazirite vow (13:7; cf. Num. 6:1–21): he drank wine at his wedding feast (Judg. 14:10: “feast” here [Hb. mishteh] is specifically a “drinking feast”); he had contact with the dead (e.g., 14:8–9, 19; 15:15); and he allowed his hair to be cut (16:17–19). Furthermore, he married an unbelieving Philistine (14:1–20), and he had intimate relations with at least two other Philistine women (16:1, 4).

In general, the book does not describe the judges as leading Israel in true repentance and in putting away foreign gods, certainly not in the way the reforming kings did later in the kingdom of Judah. The one judge who did the most along this line––Gideon (6:25–32)––did so only at the beginning of his “ministry”; by the end, he was leading the people in exactly the opposite direction (8:24–27).

The NT may seem to present a more idealized view of Gideon, Samson, and others than what is found in the book of Judges: Hebrews lists Gideon, Barak, Samson, and Jephthah, along with David, Samuel, and the prophets, as examples of those “who through faith conquered kingdoms, enforced justice, obtained promises, stopped the mouths of lions” (Heb. 11:32–33). However, to say that these heroes had some measure of faith is not to say that they were consistent models of faith and virtue. Undoubtedly they demonstrated faith (at times) that allowed God to “conquer kingdoms” through them, but just as surely, the book of Judges focuses more on other aspects of their character to make a point about the widespread apostasy during the period.

While the judges themselves did not always contribute to improving the spiritual conditions in the land, this was not always their fault. The people as a whole did not supply the repentance that makes a godly leader effective. But despite their flaws, the judges often acted heroically. The book of Judges does not exaggerate or romanticize their exploits. These stories are not primarily about the judges as individuals: the judges’ main function is to dispense God’s justice and merciful faithfulness to his people, usually by military deliverance. All servants of God’s purposes for his people have their flaws; the question is whether God should choose to allow those flaws to bear their bitter fruit. Even in these circumstances, God is working out his plan; he is not thwarted, even by human failure.

Key Themes

1. Israel’s existence in the land, which had been promised by God, was threatened by its continuing apostasy. Israel had not conquered the land completely (ch. 1), and its unfaithfulness was to blame (2:1–3, 20–22). Therefore, the day would come when the nation would be taken captive, away from the land (18:30).

2. The oppressions, chaos, and generally negative picture in the book are due to Israel’s repeated sin. Time and again the Israelites broke the covenant, turning to the Canaanite gods and generally “doing evil” (2:3, 11–13, 17, 19; 3:6, 7, 12; 4:1; 6:1, 10; 8:24–27, 33; 10:6; 13:1; 17:6; 21:25). As a result, they repeatedly suffered the consequences.

3. God’s faithfulness was the counterpoint to Israel’s apostasy. Despite Israel’s repeated falling away, God continually delivered his people. This was due not to Israel’s merits or repentance, but to God’s compassion and pity (2:16, 18) and his promises to Abraham and his descendants (Deut. 6:10–11; cf. Gen. 12:7; 15:7, 18–21; 26:2–3; 35:12).

4. The judges did little to arrest the downward cycle of apostasy; if anything, they accelerated it. Major judges such as Gideon (8:24–27), Jephthah (11:30–31, 34–40), and Samson (chs. 14–16) were guilty of significant sin. The shining exception was a woman: Deborah (chs. 4–5).

5. Israel needed a godly king to lead in doing right in the Lord’s eyes rather than a leader who “did what was right in his own eyes” (cf. 17:6; 21:25). God had promised from the beginning that there would be kings (Gen. 17:6, 16; 35:11; 49:10), and had given explicit instructions about what a godly king would look like (Deut. 17:14–20). The book of Judges shows the chaos and apostasy to which the people of Israel descended in the absence of a godly king.

History of Salvation Summary

God’s people were to fulfill their calling by being faithful to the covenant in the land God had given them. The leadership of Joshua had set them up to do just this, and yet success was not automatic. The people depended on faithful leadership, which they generally lacked. Even the judges fell short of the ideal for leaders; nevertheless, God used them to preserve and chastise his people, and to teach them their need for a faithful king (a provision narrated by 1–2 Samuel). (For an explanation of the “History of Salvation,” see the Overview of the Bible. See also History of Salvation in the Old Testament: Preparing the Way for Christ.)

Literary Features

The format of Judges is a collection of individual “hero stories”; together, they tell the history of Israel during a specific era. Like Genesis, Judges pictures a mixture of good and bad behavior: the judges are not idealized, nor is their portrait uniformly negative. Mingled with the hero stories are brief units of historical facts about judges whose stories are not told in detail. The famous Song of Deborah (ch. 5) is poetry, while the story of Samson (chs. 13–16) meets the usual criteria of literary tragedy.

The pattern introduced in 2:11–23 shapes the plot: (1) the Israelites do what is evil in the sight of God; (2) God allows the nation to be conquered and oppressed by a neighboring nation; (3) the people cry to God; and (4) God sends a judge to deliver them (see chart). Then the cycle repeats itself. In addition to this cycle, the book is structured on the premise of a double plot. The overall story is one of national descent into lawlessness and apostasy; but within this national narrative lies a collection of stories that celebrate the heroic exploits of judges. Even though they had severe flaws, four of these judges are mentioned among the heroes of the faith (Hebrews 11).

Realism permeates Judges, for the book refuses to overlook the sordid side of life. As the book unfolds, readers encounter shocking accounts of violence, sexual abuse, idolatry, and misuse of power. Before the book is over, gruesome scenes of bodily mutilation and dismemberment are disclosed. While Judges portrays the worst with regard to bad behavior, such realism was included to reveal something important about life and human nature apart from God.

Throughout the book, we are commanded to love God – specifically, 10 times.  And, the basis of our love for God is his love for us – “It was not because you were more in number than any other people that the Lord set his love on you and chose you, for you were the fewest of all peoples, 8 but it is because the Lord loves you and is keeping the oath that he swore to your fathers, that the Lord has brought you out with a mighty hand and redeemed you from the house of slavery, from the hand of Pharaoh king of Egypt.” (7:7-8)

But, as it relates to other gods, never do we relate to them out of love.  Instead, we end up “serving” them (19 times throughout the book).

Why is this?  False gods don’t love us.  But, the gods of our creating demand our everything.  So, rather than serving out of pure devotion and love (as we are commanded to do to God), our service becomes slavery.  We become mastered, manipulated, enslaved, and shackled to the relentless master of our own making.  No love, no mutual admiration and affection, just slavery.

But, what gods are we enslaved to?  Tim Keller makes this observation:

“Sin is the despairing refusal to find your deepest identity in your relationship and service to God. Sin is seeking to become oneself, to get an identity apart from him. . . . Most people think of sin primarily as “breaking divine rules,” but Kierkegaard knows that the very first of the Ten Commandments is to “have no other gods before me.” So, according to the Bible, the primary way to define sin is not just the doing of bad things, but the making of good things into ultimate things. It is seeking to establish a sense of self by making something else more central to your significance, purpose, and happiness than your relationship to God.”

In other words, what am I turning to in order to find significance, purpose, and happiness?  Is it relationships, sex, ministry, religious approval, looks, charm, cars, career, money, friends, etc…  These can all become our “functional saviors”.  These are the “saviors” that work for us…but ultimately make us work for them.  They don’t love us, they just eventually demand more and more and more.

Instead, love and serve the God who doesn’t demand, but for our joy commands…who doesn’t enslave, but empowers…who doesn’t shackle, but frees…who doesn’t steal joy, but gives it…and who doesn’t control, but compels by His love.

Reflection questions:

• What “functional saviors” are capturing your heart and slowly shackling your feet?
• How is the love of God so much more compelling than your “functional saviors”?

Joshua recounts part two of God’s grandest work of redemption in the OT period. In part one (the Pentateuch), under the leadership of Moses, the Lord redeemed his people out of bondage in Egypt and formalized his covenantal love for them at Sinai. Now in part two, under the leadership of Joshua, the Lord as divine Warrior brings his people into the Land of Promise and gives them “rest.”

Purpose, Occasion, and Background

From the evidence in the book itself, it appears that the purpose of the book of Joshua was to recount, from a theological perspective, the events surrounding Israel’s capture and settlement of the land of Canaan—with particular emphasis on God’s faithfulness in fulfilling his promise to the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Such an account would have been relevant to ancient Israel from its earliest arrival in Canaan and to every subsequent generation of God’s people to the present day.

Literary background. Joshua comes immediately after the Pentateuch and in many ways completes its story. The theme of the first five books of the Bible is the progressive fulfillment of the “patriarchal promise,” made first to Abraham (Gen. 12:1–3) and reiterated to him, his son Isaac (Gen. 26:2–4), and his grandson Jacob (Gen. 28:13–15; etc.). Simply stated, the Lord promised Abraham and his descendants that they would be blessed and become a blessing, that they would grow to become a great nation, and that they would be given a land of their own. In addition, these blessings would be enjoyed in the context of a close covenant relationship with God.

By the end of the Pentateuch, Israel has been brought into the blessing of covenant relationship with the Lord and has become a great people. But they remain outside the Land of Promise, on the plains of Moab. Forty years before, the Lord had raised up Moses to lead his people out of bondage in Egypt and to bring them to the land he had promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Ex. 3:6–8; 6:2–8). Now, after so many years of wandering, Joshua, the “new Moses” (Josh. 1:1–9), is to lead God’s people into the land, take it, and divide it among them as their inheritance from the Lord.

Historical background. (See also Introduction to the Historical Books.) The dates of the exodus and the conquest of the Promised Land are interrelated, since the conquest occurred about 40 years after the exodus. Whether the exodus occurred in the fifteenth century (about 1446) or thirteenth century (about 1260) b.c. is a matter of long-standing debate among biblical scholars. (See The Date of the Exodus.)

Were the pharaoh of the exodus explicitly named in the biblical text, this problem would be solved, but as was the custom in Egyptian records until about the tenth century b.c., he is simply called “Pharaoh.” Deciding the date of the exodus and conquest does not materially affect the interpretation of the book of Joshua. Continuing archaeological work (both excavations and surface surveys) is providing helpful data, but this data requires interpretation and can often be correlated with either date of the conquest.

With regard to the manner in which Israel came to be present in Canaan, several “models” have been suggested. According to the older conquest model, associated with W. F. Albright, the text of Joshua describes a rapid and highly destructive conquest. Advocates of this view were convinced that the thirteenth century provided the best archaeological confirmation. Subsequent work undermined Albright’s model and its archaeological support. The unfortunate result of the collapse of Albright’s conquest model was that many scholars wrongly assumed that the biblical testimony to a conquest was also discredited. More careful reading of the biblical text, however, reveals a conquest that is protracted and not necessarily very destructive of property, except in the case of those few cities burned: Jericho, Ai, and Hazor (see note on 11:10–15). Other proposed models of Israel’s emergence include the peaceful infiltration model (pioneered by A. Alt), the peasant revolt model (of G. Mendenhall), and various more recent endogenous models (which assume Israel to have emerged from within Canaan, rather than having entered from without).

None of the standard “models” does full justice to the biblical evidence, but each may capture an aspect of the biblical portrayal. Military conquest certainly played a part in Israel’s entry into Canaan, and archaeology provides at least some interesting correlations (see notes on 6:5; 11:10–15). Further, archaeological surface surveys indicate a rapid proliferation of small settlements in the central hill country, beginning in the late thirteenth century b.c., whose inhabitants appear to have avoided eating pork. It is tempting to associate these new villages with the settling down of Israelites, perhaps after a longer or shorter period of existence as nomadic herdsmen in Canaan. Peaceful infiltration may have played some part in the settlement; Gibeon came under Israelite control without a fight (ch. 9), as did perhaps Shechem (see note on 8:30–33) and other sites. Revolt and realignment by disaffected Canaanites such as Rahab (ch. 2) almost certainly contributed to Israel’s “mixed multitude” (cf. Ex. 12:38), so some degree of “endogenous” origin need not be ruled out.

For background information on the man Joshua, see note on Joshua 1:1.

The Destruction of the Canaanites

The account in Joshua presents the sensitive reader with a deep problem, namely, the apparently wholesale slaughter of the indigenous Canaanite population in order to allow the people of Israel to occupy their land. How did Israel have any right to seize that land? And how can it be God’s will for them to spare none of those who resisted them in defense of their own land? Could this be a level of barbarism that God tolerated in the OT but now forbids in the NT?

Certainly people hostile to the Bible decry ancient Israel for its “ethnic cleansing,” and many sensitive Christians find this deeply troubling as well. To handle the topic thoroughly would take a longer essay, but the discussion here can guide thoughts for fuller reflection.

One must begin by acknowledging that the questions are legitimate. Christians rightly condemn this kind of behavior in other circumstances, and there is no warrant today for nations to destroy other nations in order to take their land. But there are special features of the command to Israel that both make it unique (and therefore not open to be imitated) and allow it to be seen in a moral light. This command is one reason why Exodus records the call of Moses in such detail (Ex. 3:1–4:17; cf. Num. 12:1–15): Moses is God’s unique choice to be the lawgiver for his people, and the commands given through Moses come from God’s own mind (cf. Deut. 18:15–20). Believers accept God’s appointment of Moses to speak his will. Without this command from God as delivered through Moses, Israel would have had no right to the land.

A second point to clarify is that the Pentateuch sets out laws of warfare, distinguishing between battles fought against cities outside the Promised Land (Deut. 20:10–15) and those fought against cities inside the land (Deut. 20:16–18). It is only the latter case that requires Israel to spare no one (“you shall devote them to complete destruction”); see the notes on Deuteronomy 20:1–20 and 20:16–18. The law appears to be unconditional and implacable. With these clarifications, one can now outline why this command is not an unsolvable “problem.”

(1) A fundamental OT conviction is that Yahweh, the God of Israel, is the Creator of all there is, and therefore the owner of all lands. He has the right to distribute territories according to his good and holy will (cf. Ex. 19:5; Ps. 24:1). As the universal Creator, he is also the universal Judge, to whom all people everywhere are accountable: cf. Genesis 6–8 (the flood story affects all kinds of people); Genesis 11:1–9 (the Tower of Babel); Exodus 12:12 (judgment on the gods of Egypt); the prophetic oracles about the nations (see chart). The NT shares this basic conviction: cf. Acts 14:15–16; 17:24–31. This means that God has the ultimate rights over the land of Canaan, and that he has the right to bring the Canaanites to judgment for their moral condition and deeds.

(2) Since all people are sinners, all are rightly subject to God’s judgment. The Pentateuch gives a moral rationale for the removal of the Canaanites, seeing it as divine judgment for their iniquities (see note on Gen. 15:13–16; cf. Lev. 18:24–30; Deut. 9:5). This action against these peoples, then, is an expression of God’s judgment on them through the agency of Israel. This judgment therefore announces the moral nature of God to the whole world for their instruction (that announcement in all its clarity is itself part of the blessing that Israel is to bring to the whole world). In ways that are not entirely clear, the faithful will participate with God in carrying out the final judgment (1 Cor. 6:2; cf. Ps. 149:6–7), and Israel’s bringing of judgment on the Canaanites foreshadows that great responsibility as well (see note on Josh. 6:17).

God’s judgment allows no double standard: he did not base his choice of Israel on any merit of theirs (Deut. 7:6–9), and he calls them to embrace his love faithfully. Unfaithfulness will lead to judgment upon Israel itself, whether at the level of the individual (Ex. 22:20) or the whole people (Josh. 7:11–12; Mal. 4:6; cf. Lev. 18:28). This cannot be called “ethnic cleansing,” since the treatment is just, regardless of ethnicity.

(3) Further, the Sinai covenant sets Israel up to be a “theocracy,” a unique combination of what is now called “church” and “state.” Membership in the people is both political and religious, and thus “citizens” are under obligation to be faithful in observing the covenant. Those who carry out egregious violations must be removed (e.g., Deut. 13:5; 17:7; etc.), and if Israel were to allow unrepentant Canaanites to remain in the land, they would drag the whole people down into idolatry, injustice, and evil (e.g., Deut. 7:4; 12:29–31), which, sadly, is just what happened. Christians are not to carry out this kind of warfare, because the people of God are no longer identified with a particular nation-state.

(4) Finally, even though the laws about destroying the Canaanites are stated in an uncompromising and unconditional way (in keeping with the rhetoric of ancient Near Eastern conquest accounts, which allows for this kind of unqualified statement), the way Israel applied those laws apparently made room for some of the Canaanites to surrender and survive, particularly if they professed faith in the one true God (see note on Josh. 2:9 for Rahab and her whole family; see note on 9:1–27 for the Gibeonites; cf. 11:19). This means that the appearance of implacability in these laws is just that, an appearance, and there is an implied allowance for exceptions. This is another point showing that, strictly speaking, the command given to Israel is nothing like “ethnic cleansing,” since ethnicity itself is not the reason for the action.

These factors—God’s right to allocate land and judge the world with perfect justice; the need to protect the purity of the Israelite theocracy; and the provisions for even Canaanites to be saved—all illustrate the justice that lies behind these provisions. At the same time, it is also clear that the practices known as genocide and ethnic cleansing are indeed evil, and the Israelites were not commanded to commit them. These factors were a unique part of Israel’s mission; no people today have any right to use them as a warrant to support injustice.

Key Themes

The book of Joshua is fascinating not only in respect to literary and historical questions but perhaps especially in regard to several theological topics: land, leadership, the Book of the Law, covenant, Yahweh’s war (Hb. kherem), judgment and mercy, divine sovereignty and human responsibility, promised rest, God’s faithfulness and his people’s response, and so forth. The theological lessons to glean from the pages of Joshua are many:

The Lord’s abiding presence as the key to strength and courage (e.g., 1:5, 9).

The centrality of the Lord’s instructions for succeeding in one’s mission and acting with insight; land and rest as divine gifts (1:7–8).

The ability of the Lord to save the “outsider” (Rahab), and the danger of the “insider” falling away (Achan; see chs. 2 and 7).

The Lord as divine Warrior and the reality of judgment when iniquity is full (e.g., 10:42; 11:19–20).

The danger of presumption and failure to inquire of the Lord (e.g., 9:14).

The Lord as protector of the covenant (e.g., 10:1–15, esp. v. 11).

The unity of the people of God (18:1–10; 22:34).

The sovereignty of God in giving his people place and rest (1:13; 11:23; 21:43–45).

The faithfulness of God in fulfilling all his good promises (1:2; 21:43–45).

The necessity of removing false gods and worshiping God alone (ch. 24).

The list could continue. Given the virtual identity of the names Joshua and Jesus (both are rendered “Jesus” [Gk. ’Iēsous] in the Gk. of the Septuagint and the NT), and in light of passages such as Hebrews 4:8–11, it is not surprising that the leader Joshua has been interpreted as a “type” of Christ.

History of Salvation Summary

The story of Joshua continues on from the Pentateuch, as God uses Joshua’s leadership of his people to give them what he had promised to the patriarchs. In such circumstances, there is even (in a limited way) blessing coming to Gentiles. In order to flourish and to fulfill their calling, the people of God require faithful leadership and faithful members. In Joshua, this mostly does happen (with a notable lapse, 9:14). The book closes with the people pledging continued faithfulness. The story of Israel after this time shows that their heirs did not remain faithful to this pledge, and the book warns all subsequent generations that each of them must renew this commitment. (For an explanation of the “History of Salvation,” see the Overview of the Bible. See also History of Salvation in the Old Testament: Preparing the Way for Christ.)

Literary Features

In the Hebrew canon, the book of Joshua is included (along with Judges, 1–2 Samuel, and 1–2 Kings) in the “Former Prophets.” In English Bibles, these same books are often called the “Historical Books.” Both designations are apt. The book of Joshua qualifies as historiography (history writing), but it is not like the ostensibly disinterested, largely political histories that modern secular historians write. It is, rather, a didactic history written from a prophetic (that is, theological) point of view.

Multiple genres converge in the book of Joshua. The overall format is narrative or story. The specific type of story is epic—the story of a nation engaged in matters of state, including warfare. A feature of epics is the inclusion of epic catalogs (lists), and in the book of Joshua they are so extensive that the book becomes a historical chronicle in addition to an epic story.

To read the book of Joshua in keeping with its literary purpose, one needs to place oneself in the narrative world of the text. Readers need to imagine themselves present at the events, and take the literal, physical details seriously. They need to relish the suspense, the danger, and the plot conflicts that the storyteller puts forward. An epic presents heightened images of good and evil, and all the more so with the implied holy war motif encountered in the OT. Along with the images of good and evil, there are images of heroism to admire and emulate. Finally, the reader should look not only at the world of the story and its characters but through that world to life as it is now. Having relived the events in the story, one must ponder the recognizable human experiences and the underlying principles, especially in leadership, community, and spiritual warfare.

The Setting of Joshua

c. 1406/1220 b.c.

The book of Joshua recounts the Israelite conquest of the land of Canaan under the command of Joshua. The book opens at Shittim with Joshua’s commission from the Lord as the leader of the Israelites, progresses through his victories over the Canaanite kings and the allotment of the land, and ends with Joshua’s charge to the people to remain faithful to the Lord.

The book of Numbers is somewhat painful…in a few ways.  I mean no disrespect to the Word of God, but over the last 16 days of reading through the book, I found myself daydreaming, skimming, and doing anything but soaking in the Scripture that calls itself “profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness” (2 Timothy 3:16).  So, in one sense, it was painfully boring – not because of the Word, but because of my heart attitude.

But, in another sense, if reading Numbers seemed to drag on and on, I can only imagine the 40 years that dragged on and on for the disobedient Israelites.  It must have been dreadfully painful for these Israelites.

And, in a very real sense, it was dreadfully painful for God.  2 Corinthians 10:5 says, “Nevertheless, with most of them [these very Israelites in Numbers] God was not pleased, for they were overthrown in the wilderness.”

So, why did God painfully record this painful account?  “Now these things took place as examples for us, that we might not desire evil as they did” (2 Corinthians 10:6).  Let’s feel the pain of Numbers.  Let’s allow the boredom of 36 chapters remind us of the boredom of 40 years of wanderings.  And, let’s be reminded that this painful account broke the heart of God.

And, let’s remember that it doesn’t have to be this way.  Let’s not neglect the Christ that faithfully ministered to that ungrateful generation (v. 4).  Let’s be painfully reminded of the sin of our ancestry (v. 1) and that we are not beyond their painful idolatry (v. 12).  And, that as we live among self-serving, sexualizing, immoral, self-exulting, materialistic, confused, and morally bankrupt people, we have a faithful God who will not allow us to be tempted beyond our ability, but will enable us to endure through temptation as He provides a way of escape – every time.  Because of the cross, we are children of a new ancestor – Christ – who lived a perfect obedience that we couldn’t live and died a death that we deserved.  And, who brings us into a relationship with himself that overcomes sin.

Author and Title

The name “Deuteronomy” derives from the Greek for “second law,” an early mistranslation of “copy of this law” in 17:18. In fact, Deuteronomy emphasizes that its laws are not a new law but rather the preaching of the original law given to Israel at Sinai.

Deuteronomy 31:9 records that Moses wrote down “this law,” most likely referring to chapters 1–30. Certainly the bulk of these chapters is the speech of Moses to Israel in the plains of Moab at the end of the 40-year wilderness period and immediately preceding the conquest under Joshua. Later OT and NT statements also assume Mosaic authorship (cf. Josh. 23:6; 1 Kings 2:3; Mal. 4:4; Matt. 19:7–8; Rom. 10:19).

Date

There are two main issues related to the dating of this book. One is the date of the conquest, and hence of Moses’ life. The dating of the conquest is disputed, with the two major positions placing it in the late fifteenth century b.c. (about 1406) or in the thirteenth century (about 1220; for further discussion, see Introduction to the Historical Books).

The second issue is the dating of the book itself. If Moses is the author, then the two issues are more or less the same. However, another widely held view is that the book should be dated long after Moses. Some would date the book to the time of King Josiah in the latter part of the seventh century b.c. (2 Kings 22:8–13). Certainly Josiah’s reforms were advanced by the finding of a book, probably Deuteronomy, in the temple. However, this need not indicate that the book was written then. Others argue that while there may be material in Deuteronomy from the time of Josiah, it was subsequently edited in the exilic period of the sixth century b.c.

The view taken in these notes is that the book substantially dates from Moses himself, in agreement with its internal testimony (cf. Deut. 31:9, 24). The parallels with ancient treaties, especially the Hittite treaties from the second millennium, also point to an early date, thus around the fifteenth or thirteenth century b.c.

Purpose, Occasion, and Background

Deuteronomy is largely a sermon, or set of sermons, preached by Moses to all of Israel shortly before his death and not long before the conquest of the land under the leadership of Joshua. It is a motivational sermon, urging Israel’s faithful obedience to the covenant laws of Sinai given 40 years previously.

The circumstance of the sermon carries added significance because of Israel’s failure, a generation earlier, to conquer the land starting at Kadesh-barnea on the southern border of Canaan (see 1:19–46). Now that they are back at the eastern border of the Promised Land, Deuteronomy seeks to ensure that such failure does not recur. The rhetorical style of the sermon motivates obedience by constantly reassuring them of God’s faithfulness and his power to keep his promise of land. This faithfulness of God remains despite Israel’s persistent sin, detailed at length (e.g., 1:19–46; 9:1–29). Thus Deuteronomy demonstrates that God’s faithfulness results in mercy to his sinful people, for the sake of his promises to Abraham.

The theology of Deuteronomy is focused on convincing Israel to trust and obey, and to conquer the land. The uniqueness and incomparability of God is clearly argued (e.g., ch. 4). His power over other nations and armies is evident (e.g., 2:1–23). His grace and faithfulness are also stressed, with frequent reminders that the land is sworn by him on oath and is undeserved (9:4–6) and full of good things (e.g., 6:10–12).

The book’s emphasis on the continuation of the covenant made at Sinai with the previous generation underscores the abiding significance of God’s law for his people (e.g., see 5:1–3). The large central section of Deuteronomy (12:1–26:19) recites the law, consistently urging Israel to keep it. The law is wide-ranging, incorporating all areas of life—economics, family and sexual relationships, religious observance, leadership, justice, guidance, food, property, and warfare. To some extent, the detail of the laws fleshes out the great command of 6:5, that Israel is to love the Lord with all its heart, soul, and strength. Chapters 12–16 show what such total love of God will look like and, in many respects, provide examples of what the Ten Commandments (ch. 5) mean in practice.

Key Themes

1. The uniqueness of God (4:1–40).

2. The election of Israel (4:5–9; 7:6; 10:14–15; 14:1–2, 21).

3. The goodness of the land that God has promised to give Israel (1:25; 6:10–11; 8:7–13; 11:8–15).

4. The faithfulness of God, despite Israel’s sin, to keep his promise of land made originally to Abraham (1:8, 19–46; 7:1–26; 8:1–20; 9:1–10:11).

5. The power of God to defeat the enemies in the land (2:1–3:11; 4:1–40; 7:1–26).

6. Exhortations to Israel to love, serve, fear, and obey God (6:5; 10:12–13; 13:4).

7. Warnings against idolatry and instruction for proper worship of God (4:9–31; 5:6–10; 7:1–5; 8:19–20; 12:1–32; 13:1–18).

8. The comprehensiveness of the laws of God affecting all of life in the land (12:1–27:26).

9. The imminent death of Moses (1:37; 3:26; 4:21; 32:51; 34:1–12).

History of Salvation Summary

Deuteronomy is an important book for understanding not only OT theology but also the theological unity of both Testaments. Deuteronomy recognizes the need for God to act within the heart if Israel is to achieve faithful obedience to God’s covenant. The ideal life in the land is for each member of the people, and the body as a whole, to display fervent love to God as their proper response to God’s love for them; this is the means by which the rest of the world is to learn of the true God (4:5–8)—the very reason for which Israel exists. Israel’s record of failure recounted in Deuteronomy exposes that need. In its projection in 4:29–31 and 30:1–20, Deuteronomy looks forward to the day when God will change Israel’s heart. This longing recurs in the OT (e.g., Jer. 31:31–34; Ezek. 36:24–28). It is finally met through the work of Jesus’ death and the giving of his Spirit (e.g., Rom. 2:25–29; Col. 2:11–14). (For an explanation of the “History of Salvation,” see the Overview of the Bible. See also History of Salvation in the Old Testament: Preparing the Way for Christ.)

(from the ESV study bible)

Theme

The theme of Numbers is the gradual fulfillment of the promises to Abraham that his descendants would be the people of God and occupy the land of Canaan. The book shows the reality of God’s presence with Israel in the cloud of fire over the tabernacle, but the repeated displays of unbelief by Israel delay the entry into Canaan and cost many lives. Nevertheless, by the end of the book, Israel is poised to enter the land.

Purpose, Occasion, and Background

Jews refer to the first five books of the Bible as “the Law” (Torah), and Christians call them the “Pentateuch” or “The Five Books of Moses.” Numbers is the fourth volume in this series and relates Israel’s journey from Mount Sinai to the borders of the Promised Land, summarizing some 40 years of the nation’s history. The book begins with Israel making final preparations to leave Sinai. It then records their triumphal setting out, before relating a series of disasters in which the people grumbled about the difficulty of the journey and the impossibility of conquering Canaan. This response leads to God delaying the entry to Canaan by 40 years. The closing chapters of the book tell how the people at last set out again and reached the banks of the Jordan, poised to cross into the land promised to their forefathers.

Numbers thus relates a most important stage in the early history of Israel. Genesis begins with the creation of the world, but soon focuses on the life of the patriarchs and ends with their move to Egypt. Exodus tells how they left Egypt and came to Sinai to receive the law. Leviticus contains some of these laws, and Numbers still more. Numbers also summarizes the 40 years in the wilderness, and Deuteronomy (the sequel to Numbers) has Moses expounding the laws and urging the people to obey them. Deuteronomy ends with Moses’ death.

Another way of looking at the Pentateuch is as a biography of Moses (see Introduction to the Pentateuch). Numbers makes a vital contribution to this biography. First, it underlines Moses’ unique role as mediator between God and Israel. As elsewhere in the Pentateuch, it is constantly reiterated that “the Lord spoke to Moses.” And when this is challenged by his brother and sister, God himself intervenes: “With him [i.e., Moses] I speak mouth to mouth, clearly, and not in riddles, and he beholds the form of the Lord” (12:8). Second, it makes an astounding claim about Moses’ character: “Now the man Moses was very meek, more than all the people who were on the face of the earth” (12:3; see note on 12:3–4). Third, it explains why Moses never entered Canaan himself: his failure to follow God’s instruction precisely is tersely told (20:10–13), as is the subsequent death of his brother Aaron for supporting Moses’ action (20:22–29). The book closes with the reader left in suspense about when and how Moses himself will die.

Numbers is to be classed as a historical work, not only because various details in it are corroborated by archaeological discoveries but also because it deliberately sets out to record what happened on the journey from Mount Sinai to the Jordan River. It does this to instruct future generations of readers with the lessons to be learned from the wilderness experience. It is saying in effect to the reader, “Your forefathers made many mistakes on their journey to Canaan; make sure you do not repeat them.”

However, Numbers does not paint an entirely gloomy picture: the book encourages its readers as well as warns them. By the end of the book the people of Israel have conquered formidable opponents in the Transjordan (the land east of the Jordan River), taken possession of their territory, and are poised to cross the Jordan and enter the Promised Land. In this way the book shows how the promises to the patriarchs are being fulfilled (see Key Themes).

Key Themes

The theme of the Pentateuch is the gradual fulfillment of the promises to the patriarchs, and Numbers makes a notable contribution to the exposition of that theme. There are four elements to the patriarchal promise set out first in Genesis 12:1–3: (1) land, (2) many descendants, (3) covenant relationship with God, and (4) blessing to the nations. These four aspects of the promise all play a role in Numbers.

1. The land. The land of Canaan is the goal of the book of Numbers. It is broached in the first chapter, where a census is taken of all the men who are able to go to war. Israel is being prepared to fight for the land. Chapter 10 sees them setting out from Sinai, led by the fire of God’s presence. Chapter 13 relates their arrival at the southern border of the land and the mission of the spies. The spies’ gloomy report causes Israel to lose heart about the land, and God sentences them to wander for 40 years in the wilderness. But the second half of the book shows the people again on the move toward the land, overcoming opposition and reaching the eastern border of Canaan, marked by the Jordan River (ch. 34). The last word from God in the book is both a command and a promise: each of the tribes of the people of Israel shall hold on to its own inheritance (36:9).

2. Descendants. Abraham had been promised that his descendants would be as many as the stars of heaven (Gen. 15:5). Jacob’s family consisted of just 70 persons when he entered Egypt (Gen. 46:27). Now they have increased immensely. The first census showed that the fighting men numbered 603,550. That did not include women and children. Surveying their camp from a hilltop, Balaam declared, “Who can count the dust of Jacob or number the fourth part of Israel?” (Num. 23:10). Balaam went on to predict that Israel would become a powerful kingdom in its own right: “a star shall come out of Jacob, and a scepter shall rise out of Israel” (24:17).

3. Covenant relationship with God. The essence of the covenant was, “You shall be my people, and I will be your God.” The Lord’s presence with Israel is constantly brought out in the book of Numbers. There are the dramatic manifestations of his presence in the cloud that guided them or that appeared at moments of crisis (e.g., 9:15–23; 14:10). Then the design of the tabernacle and the harsh measures to be taken against intruders all emphasized the reality of God’s holy presence (3:38). On the other hand, Israel was expected to trust God’s promises and obey his laws. Failure to do so resulted in death for the individual and sometimes for large groups (e.g., 15:32–36; 25:6–9). Even Moses forfeited his right to enter the land because of disobedience (20:10–13). But despite Israel’s persistent failure to keep to the law, God never forsakes them or goes back on his promises. They may have to wait an extra 40 years to enter the land, but eventually they do reach it. “The Lord is slow to anger and abounding in steadfast love” (14:18).

4. Blessing to the nations. This is the aspect of the promises that is least apparent in Numbers. To a greater or lesser degree, the nations that Israel encounters are all hostile: the Edomites refuse Israel passage; the Moabites try to have Israel cursed; Sihon and Og attack them and are defeated (chs. 21–22). Nevertheless Balaam recalls the phrasing of Genesis 12:3 when he says, “Blessed are those who bless you, and cursed are those who curse you” (Num. 24:9). The implication is that nations who treat Israel generously by blessing her will themselves be blessed.

Place in the Bible

The events of Numbers are often mentioned elsewhere in Scripture. Its episodes are taken as showcase examples of Israel’s sinfulness and God’s reaction to it. Deuteronomy relates the story of the spies (Numbers 13–14) to remind the new generation not to repeat the unbelief of their parents, who, having reached the border of Canaan, refused to enter it (Deut. 1:19–32). The book of Ezekiel draws on the laws of Numbers to demonstrate the guilt of Jerusalem and explain why it deserved to be destroyed. The Psalms refer to incidents from the wilderness wanderings (e.g., Ps. 95:8–11; 135:10–12), and Psalms 105 and 106 relate the story in more detail. The priestly blessing (Num. 6:24–26) seems to have inspired various psalmists (see Psalms 67, 120–134). These episodes are used both as reminders of God’s goodness in the past (e.g., Ps. 136:16–22) and to encourage future loyalty to the law (Ps. 105:45).

The NT also draws on Numbers to make similar points for the Christian church. John 1:14 speaks of the Word dwelling (lit., “tabernacling”) among believers. John 3:14 refers to the serpent Moses set up (Num. 21:4–9) as imaging Christ on the cross. Both Jude 11 and Revelation 2:14 see Balaam’s error as a danger facing the early church. But it is the apostle Paul in 1 Corinthians 10:2–11 who makes the most use of Numbers. After mentioning the water and manna God had supplied in the wilderness (Num. 11:11–35; 20:2–13), he continues, “Nevertheless, with most of them God was not pleased, for they were overthrown in the wilderness [Numbers 11; 14; 16–17]. Now these things took place as examples for us, that we might not desire evil as they did. Do not be idolaters as some of them were. . . . We must not indulge in sexual immorality as some of them did, and twenty-three thousand fell in a single day [Numbers 25]. We must not put Christ to the test, as some of them did . . . and were destroyed by the Destroyer [21:5–9]. Now these things happened to them as an example, but they were written down for our instruction.”

History of Salvation Summary

Numbers continues the story of God’s people, following them from Mount Sinai to the verge of the Jordan River. The book shows the steadfast purpose of God to fashion a people for himself who will display his image to the world, and out of which his appointed Savior will arise. The unfaithfulness of the members of that people puts God’s steadfastness to the test; but whereas the unfaithful members suffer God’s punishment, the people as a whole are preserved and shaped. (For an explanation of the “History of Salvation,” see the Overview of the Bible. See also History of Salvation in the Old Testament: Preparing the Way for Christ.)

The Large Numbers in the Pentateuch

The census lists recorded in Numbers 1 and 26 have been a matter of considerable debate among scholars since the early 1900s. The grand total of warriors recorded in Numbers 1:46 comes to 603,550—which is the same number recorded in the first census (Ex. 38:26), and very similar to the number in the third census recorded in Numbers 26:51, which was taken nearly 40 years after the first census in Numbers. Since these totals include only male warriors between the ages of 20 and 60 (excluding women, children, and older men), 603,550 warriors would suggest a total population of something more than 2 million.

The Problem. Three main problems have been raised regarding whether the actual number of Israelites who were delivered from Egypt and led by Moses through the wilderness for 40 years could have been this large. The first objection (1) suggests that it is difficult to imagine how so many people (more than 2 million) could have survived for 40 years in the wilderness, including their highly organized encampment around the tabernacle and their frequent relocation during these years. Though this certainly would not be impossible—given the fact of God’s miraculous provision of manna, quail, and water, and given the cloud of God’s presence—the sudden influx of such a large population would nonetheless have been difficult to assimilate into this geographic area. A second objection (2) suggests that the archaeological evidence for the overall population of the Promised Land just after the exodus seems to be well below 3 million. Related to this, other texts (e.g., Ex. 23:29–30; Deut. 7:6–7, 21) suggest that there were not enough Israelites to take possession of the Promised Land all at once. A third objection (3) suggests that some of the numbers in general seem to reflect mathematical oddities (most figures are rounded to even 100s) and that the ratio of adult males to firstborn males seems quite large (27 to 1).

Proposed Solutions. Briefly stated, the proposed solutions may be summarized under the following four explanations:

1. The figures should be taken at face value. In this case, it is assumed that the people were sustained, protected, and led by God’s miraculous provision and presence during the 40 years in the wilderness; that the Promised Land was more fertile in ancient times; and that the number of firstborn sons (22,273; see Num. 3:43) corresponds to the number who were born during the 13-month period since the exodus. Those who support this position argue that the author of Numbers seems to be taking the numbers at face value, since they all add up correctly even when different methods of tabulation are used (cf. 1:46 with 2:32).

2. The figures should be taken at face value but they correspond to the population of Israel at a later date, possibly in the time of David. This suggestion, advocated mainly in the mid-twentieth century, has lost favor, largely because it does not correspond well with the apparent population in the time of David. Also, the tribes of Simeon had already been merged with the tribe of Judah in David’s time, whereas the two tribes are clearly distinct in the lists in Numbers 1 and 26.

3. The numbers were changed due to scribal misunderstanding. This view suggests that the numbers were originally much smaller, but that larger numbers were substituted later due to scribal misunderstanding of the Hebrew word ’elep, which can be translated either as “thousand” or “group” or “clan.” Thus it has been proposed that a number that now appears in Hebrew as 46,500 (1:21) originally meant 46 groups totaling 500 persons. Following this hypothesis, there would have been a total of 598 families, with a total of 5,550 male warriors, yielding a total population of about 20,000. This hypothesis, however, presents other difficulties, as do other similar proposals based on the meaning of the Hebrew word ’elep, one of which yields an estimated population of 140,000 and another that proposes a total population of 72,000. Those who support this general line of argument agree that it still needs refinement. They also agree that there is no one-size-fits-all solution for every OT case of what may seem to be very large numbers.

4. The numbers are symbolic. Two variations on the symbolic view are: (1) that the figures are based on “gematria,” that is, the symbolic numerical value given to each of the letters in the Hebrew alphabet; or (2) that the figures correspond in a symbolic way to astronomical periods associated with the 12 tribes of Israel. Though some have argued that astronomical symbolism is hinted at in Joseph’s dream (by the way in which the sun, moon, and 11 stars bowed down to Joseph), it is difficult to apply this symbolism in a comprehensive and consistent way.

Summary. Since these numbers claim to be census figures, the natural presupposition is that they are to be taken at face value. And although this presupposition is not without its difficulty, there is no obvious solution to the problems posed by these census figures. In any case, the theological message of this section in Numbers is clear—namely, (1) that every eligible adult male in Israel must be prepared and committed to fight in the Lord’s army, and (2) that all the people of Israel who were delivered from Egypt are the elect people of God, but they must confirm God’s choice by their wholehearted participation in the realization of their calling (see further Ex. 32:32–33; Ps. 87:6; Isa. 4:3; Dan. 12:1; Mal. 3:16).

2:1 The offering of the fruitfulness of the land prefigures the honor given to God through the fruitfulness of Christ (John 13:31–32; 1 Cor. 15:23).

3:1 Most of the peace offering is eaten by the worshiper (7:15–16), signifying fellowship with and blessing from God. It is fulfilled in Christ’s reconciliation and giving himself as food (John 6:52–57; Rom. 5:9–11).

4:2 The promise of forgiveness is fulfilled in Christ’s giving himself as a sacrifice for sin (Rom. 8:3; Heb. 10:1–10).

4:12 The position outside the camp prefigures Christ’s crucifixion outside Jerusalem (Heb. 13:11–14).

5:1 Sins of falsehood and sins against holiness are forgiven in anticipation of Christ’s work in holiness (Heb. 9:23–26; 10:11–20).

6:13 The continuation of the altar fire indicates the insufficiency of repeated sacrifices (Heb. 10:1–4), in contrast to the sufficiency of Christ’s sacrifice (Heb. 10:10) and intercession (Heb. 7:25).

7:20 Fellowship with God and with the things of God requires holiness, prefiguring the holiness of Christ purifying us (Heb. 10:10; 12:14).

Taken from the ESV study bible article “History of Salvation in the OT